13. It can be inferred that the author of the passage regards Hart s theory of hard cases and the theory of standard law as
(A) exhaustive
(B) worthy of respect
(C) interesting but impractical
(D) plausible but unwieldy
(E) hopelessly outmoded
14. Which one of the following is true of the term "legally determinate" (line 6) as it is used in the passage?
(A) It represents the idea that every crime should have a fixed penalty rather than a range of penalties within which a judge can make an arbitrary choice
(B) It refers to a legal case that can be definitively resolved in favor of one side or the other according to the law in effect at the time
(C) It describes a legal rule that requires judges to limit their actions to applying written law when deciding cases over which people with legal training disagree
(D) It refers to any legal case that involves terms with imprecise meanings and thus relies for its resolution only on the determination of judges.
(E) It refers to procedures for determining the legal outcome of complex issues in difficult cases.
15. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with
(A) outlining the problems that might be faced by a legislature attempting to create a complete body of law that would prevent judges from making rather than applying the law
(B) justifying the idea that "hard" cases will always exist in the practice of law, no matter what laws are written or how they are applied
(C) presenting evidence to support Dworkin s idea that legal rules apply in an all-or-nothing fashion whereas legal principles apply in more sophisticated ways
(D) critiquing the concept of the open texture of legal terms as a conceptual flaw in Hart s otherwise well-regarded book.
(E) demonstrating that Dworkin s concept of legal principles does not form the basis for a successful attack on Hart s theory of legally indeterminate cases
One way governments can decrease air pollution is to impose a tax on industrial carbon dixide emissions. But why should governments consider a carbon tax when they could control emissions by
(5) establishing energy efficiency and conservation standards, by legislating against coal use or by increasing inverstment in nuclear? The great virtue of such a tax is that it would provide incentives for industry to achieve emission
(10) reductions. Because oil emits more carbon dioxide per unit of energy generated than does natural gas, and coal more than oil,a carbon tax would vary with the type of fuel.Such a tax would induce industry to substitute less- polluting fuels for those carrying a
(15) higher tax and also to reduce the total use of energy
However it is not clear how high such a tax should be or what its economic and environmental implications would be. At first glance, it is not
(20) difficult to estimate roughly the size of the tax needed to effect a given level of emission reduction. One writer estimates for example that a tax of 41 percent on the price of coal 33 percent on oil and 25 percent on gas would reduce the United
(25) Kingdom s emissions by 20 percent (using 1988 as the base year) by the year 2005 the target recommended by the 1988 Toronto Conference. It should be noted however that these numbers ignore the effect of the tax on economic growth, and
(30) hence on emissions, and assume that past responses to a price rise will be replicated in the future These numbers are also based on the assumption that all countries will behave cooperatively in imposing a carbon tax.
(35) There are very strong reasons to believe that cooperation would be difficult to win. If most countries cooperated. then any country that chose not to cooperate would be advantaged it would have no abatement costs, and the effect on the
(40) environment of its defection would be relatively small. Because of this "free rider" effect cooperation on a scale needed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions might prove elusive
Should countries act unilaterally to durb
(45) emissions? If a country were to act unilaterally the benefits would be spread across the globe, whereas the costs would fall solely on the country taking the action. The action would reduce emissions globally and the effect of this would be to reduce the benefit
(50) other countries would receive if they reduced emissions. As a consequence other countries would have less incentive to reduce emissions and would probably emit more carbon dioxide than they would have if the unilateral action had not been taken
(55) The entire effect of the emission reduction may not be lost, but it would surely be dimminished by this free-riding behavior
16. According to the passage, the size of the carbon tax levied on a given fuel would vary with the
(A) amount of that fuel used by a particular industry
(B) amount of pollution caused by the fuel being taxed
(C) size of the industries using the fuel being taxed
(D) effect that the tax would have on a country s economy
(E) number of usuers of a particular fuel at a particular time
17. The author mentions the estimates of "One writer" (line 22) primarily in order to
(A) indicate in a general way the size that a carbon tax must be for it to be effective.
(B) provide the most accurate information available about the most practical size for a carbon tax
(C) suggest that the target recommended by the 1988 Toronto Conference is an unrealistic one
(D) undermine the argument that a carbon tax would provide incentives for user s to achieve emissions reductions
(E) show how the size of an effective carbon tax can be calculated
18. Which one of the following circumstances would most seriously undermine the conclusion "Such a tax would induce induce industry to substitute less-polluting fuels for those carrying a higher tax" (lines 13-15)
(A) The fuel taxed a the highest rate costs considerably less to buy than fuels taxed at lower rates
(B) The goal set by the Toronto Conference cannot be reached unless each fuel it taxed at a much higher rate
(C) The tax on coal represents a much greater cost increase than does the tax on oil or gas
(D) It is discovered that gas produces even less carbon dioxide per unit of energy generated than was previously thought.
(E) It is discovered that coal produces even more carbon dioxide per unit of energy generated than are previously thought.
19. The passage is primarily intended to answer which one of the following questions?
(A) How high a tax should a country s government impose on carbon dioxide emissions?
(B) What issues should a country s government consider before deciding whether to impose a tax on carbon dioxide emissions?
(C) What assumptions underlie a country s decision to impose a tax on carbon dioxide emissions?
(D) How can the effects of industrial pollution on the Earth s atmosphere be decreased?
(E) What can be done to increase the effectiveness of any tax that a country imposes on carbon dioxide emissions?
20. In response to the question. "Should countries act unilaterally to curb emissions?" (line 44-45) the author would be most likely to contend that a country should
(A) not act unilaterally because although that country would receive some benefits from such action other countries would most likely be harmed by it
(B) not act unilaterally because unilateral action would have no benefits for other countries
(C) not act unilaterally because the cost to that country would not be justified by the limited effect that such action would have on industrial pollution worldwide
(D) act unilaterally because that country s economy would benefit from the resulting reduction in industrial emissions worldwide
(E) act unilaterally because other countries might well be inspired to follow that country s example
21. Which one of the following is most parallel to the "free rider" effect mentioned in line 41?
(A) An industry agrees to base itself in a city where there has been little industrial development only if the city will rezone the specific property the industry desires.
(B) Because fares for public transportation are rising a commuter decides to bicycle to work rather than to use public transportation i a city where auto emissions are a problem
(C) An apartment dweller begins to recycle newspapeers even though no one else in the building does so and recycling is not required by law
(D) In an area where groundwater has become polluted a homeowner continues to buy bottled water rather than contribute to a neighborhood fund to combat pollution
(E) In an area where overgrazing is a severe problem a shepherd allows his sheep to continue grazing common field even though his neighbors have agreed to buy feed for their animals until regrowth occurs
Some meteorologists have insisted that the severity of the drought in sub-Saharan West Africa and its long duration (nearly 40 years to date) must be a sign of a long term alteration in climate
(5) Among the theories proposed to explain this change one hypothesis that has gained widespread attention attributes the drought to a cooling of the Northern Hemisphere. This hypothesis is based on the fact that between 1945 and the early 1970s the
(10) average annual air temperatures over the landmasses of the Northern Hemisphere decreased by about half a degree Fahrenheit (approximately one quarter of a degree Celsius—a samll but significant amount). Several meterologists have
(15) suggested that this cooling was caused by an increase in atmospheric dust emanating from volcanic eruptions and from urban and industrial pollution the dust reflected incoming sunlight. causing the ground to receive less solar radiation
(20) and to transfer less heart to the atmosphere. The cooling seemed to be more pronounced in the middle and high latitudes than in the tropies an observation that is consistent with the fact that the Sun s rays enter the atmosphere at a greater angle
(25) farther north and so have to pass through more dust-laden atmosphere on the way to the Earth.
Since winds are set in motion by differences in air pressure caused by unequal heating of the atmosphere supporters of the cooling hypothesis
(30) have argued that a growing temperature differential between the unusually cool middle and high latitudes and the warm tropical latitudes is causing a southward expansion of the circumpolar vortex—the high-altitude westerly winds that circle
(35) the Northern Hemisphere at middle latitudes According to this hypothesis as the circumpolar vortex expands, it forces south other components of large- scale atmospheric circulation and in effect displaces the northward-moving monsoon that
(40) ordinarily bring sub-Saharan rain Proponents have further argued that this change in atmospheric circulation might be long-term since cooling in the Northern Hemisphere could be perpetuated by increases in ice and snow coverage there which
(45) would lead to reflection of more sunlight away from the Earth to further cooling and indirectly to further drought in sub-Saharan West Africa
Despite these are ptedtctions and even though the current African drought has lasted longer than
(50) any other in this century the notion that the drough is caused by cooling of the Northern Hemisphere is. fact not well supported Contrary to the predictions of the cooling hypothesis, during one period of rapid Northern Hemisphere cooling
(55) in the early 1950s, the sub-Sahara was unusually rain Moreover in the early 1980s, when the drought was particularly severe Northern Hemisphere lands actually warmed slightly. And furhter doubt has been cast on the hypothesis by
(60) recent analyses suggesting that when surface temperatures of water as well as land are taken into account the Northern Hemisphere may not have cooled at all
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